Computational Efficiency of Polar

Lecture Notes on Monte Carlo Methods Fall Semester, 2005 Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, NYU Jonathan Goodman, [email  protected] nyu. edu Chapter 2: Simple Sampling of Gaussians. created August 26, 2005 Generating univariate or multivariate Gaussian random variables is simple and fast. There should be no reason ever to use approximate methods based, for example, on the Central limit theorem. 1 Box Muller It would be nice to get a standard normal from a standard uniform by inverting the distribution function, but there is no closed form formula for this distribution 2 x unction N (x) = P (X < x) = v1 ? e? x /2 dx . The Box Muller method is a 2 brilliant trick to overcome this by producing two independent standard normals from two independent uniforms. It is based on the familiar trick for calculating ? 2 e? x I= /2 dx . This cannot be calculated by â€Å"integration† – the inde? nite integral does not have an algebraic expression in terms of elementary f unctions (exponentials, logs, trig functions). However, ? 2 e? x I2 = ? /2 e? y dx 2 ? /2 ? 2 e? (x dy = +y 2 )/2 dxdy . The last integral can be calculated using polar coordinates x = r cos(? ), y = r sin(? with area element dxdy = rdrd? , so that 2? I2 = r = 0? e? r 2 /2 rdrd? = 2? r = 0? e? r 2 /2 rdr . ? =0 Unlike the original x integral, this r integral is elementary. The substitution s = r2 /2 gives ds = rdr and ? e? s ds = 2? . I 2 = 2? s=0 The Box Muller algorithm is a probabilistic interpretation of this trick. If (X, Y ) is a pair of independent standard normals, then the probability density is a product: 2 2 1 1 ? (x2 +y2 )/2 1 e . f (x, y ) = v e? x /2  · v e? y /2 = 2? 2? 2? 1 Since this density is radially symmetric, it is natural to consider the polar coordinate random variables (R, ? de? ned by 0 ? ? < 2? and X = R cos(? ), and Y = R sin(? ). Clearly ? is uniformly distributed in the interval [0, 2? ] and may be sampled using ? = 2? U1 . Unlike the original dis tribution function N (x), there is a simple expression for the R distribution function: 2? r G(R) = P (R ? r) = r =0 ?=0 r 1 ? r 2 /2 e rdrd? = 2? e? r 2 /2 rdr . r =0 The same change of variable r 2 /2 = s, r dr = ds (so that r = r when s = r2 /2) allows us to calculate r 2 /2 e? s dx = 1 ? e? r G(r) = 2 /2 . s=0 Therefore, we may sample R by solving the distribution function equation1 G(R) = 1 ? e? R 2 /2 = 1 ?U2 , whose solution is R = ? 2 ln(U2 ). Altogether, the Box Muller method takes independent standard uniform random variables U1 and U2 and produces independent standard normals X and Y using the formulas ? = 2? U1 , R = ?2 ln(U2 ) , X = R cos(? ) , Y = R sin(? ) . (1) It may seem odd that X and Y in (13) are independent given that they use the same R and ?. Not only does our algebra shows that this is true, but we can test the independence computationally, and it will be con? rmed. Part of this method was generating a point â€Å"at random† on the unit circle. We sug gested doing this by choosing ? niformly in the interval [0, 2? ] then taking the point on the circle to be (cos(? ), sin(? )). This has the possible drawback that the computer must evaluate the sine and cosine functions. Another way to do this2 is to choose a point uniformly in the 2 ? 2 square ? 1 ? x ? 1, 1 ? y ? 1 then rejecting it if it falls outside the unit circle. The ? rst accepted point will be uniformly distributed in the unit disk x2 + y 2 ? 1, so its angle will be random and uniformly distributed. The ? nal step is to get a point on the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1 by dividing by the length.The methods have equal accuracy (both are exact in exact arithmetic). What distinguishes them is computer performance (a topic discussed more in a later lecture, hopefully). The rejection method, with an acceptance probability ? ? 4 78%, seems e? cient, but rejection can break the instruction pipeline and slow a computation by a factor of ten. Also, the square root needed to compute 1 Re call that 1 ? U2 is a standard uniform if U2 is. for example, in the dubious book Numerical Recipies. 2 Suggested, 2 the length may not be faster to evaluate than sine and cosine.Moreover, the rejection method uses two uniforms while the ? method uses just one. The method can be reversed to solve another sampling problem, generating a random point on the â€Å"unit spnere† in Rn . If we generate n independent standard normals, then the vector X = (X1 , . . . , Xn ) has all angles equally n likely (because the probability density is f (x) = v1 ? exp(? (x2 + ·  ·  ·+x2 )/2), n 1 2 which is radially symmetric. Therefore X/ X is uniformly distributed on the unit sphere, as desired. 1. 1 Other methods for univariate normals The Box Muller method is elegant and reasonably fast and is ? ne for casual omputations, but it may not be the best method for hard core users. Many software packages have native standard normal random number generators, which (if they are any good) use e xpertly optimized methods. There is very fast and accurate software on the web for directly inverting the normal distribution function N (x). This is particularly important for quasi Monte Carlo, which substitutes equidistributed sequences for random sequences (see a later lecture). 2 Multivariate normals An n component multivariate normal, X , is characterized by its mean  µ = E [X ] and its covariance matrix C = E [(X ?  µ)(X ?  µ)t ].We discuss the problem of generating such an X with mean zero, since we achieve mean  µ by adding  µ to a mean zero multivariate normal. The key to generating such an X is the fact that if Y is an m component mean zero multivariate normal with covariance D and X = AY , then X is a mean zero multivariate normal with covariance t C = E X X t = E AY (AY ) = AE Y Y t At = ADAt . We know how to sample the n component multivariate normal with D = I , just take the components of Y to be independent univariate standard normals. The formula X = AY w ill produce the desired covariance matrix if we ? nd A with AAt = C .A simple way to do this in practice is to use the Choleski decomposition from numerical linear algebra. This is a simple algorithm that produces a lower triangular matrix, L, so that LLt = C . It works for any positive de? nite C . In physical applications it is common that one has not C but its inverse, H . This would happen, for example, if X had the Gibbs-Boltzmann distribution with kT = 1 (it’s easy to change this) and energy 1 X t HX , and probability 2 1 density Z exp(? 1 X t HX ). In large scale physical problems it may be impracti2 cal to calculate and store the covariance matrix C = H ? though the Choleski factorization H = LLt is available. Note that3 H ? 1 = L? t L? 1 , so the choice 3 It is traditional to write L? t for the transpose of L? 1 , which also is the inverse of Lt . 3 A = L? t works. Computing X = L? t Y is the same as solving for X in the equation Y = Lt X , which is the process of ba ck substitution in numerical linear algebra. In some applications one knows the eigenvectors of C (which also are the eigenvectors of H ), and the corresponding eigenvalues. These (either the eigenvectors or the eigenvectors and eigenvalues) sometimes are called principal com2 ponents.Let qj be the eigenvectors, normalized to be orthonormal, and ? j the corresponding eigenvalues of C , so that 2 Cqj = ? j qj , t qj qk = ? jk . t Denote the qj component of X by Zj = qj X . This is a linear function of X and t therefore Gaussian with mean zero. It’s variance (note: Zj = Zj = X t qj ) is 2 t t t 2 E [Zj ] = E [Zj  · Zj ] = qj E [XX t ]qj = qj Cqj = ? j . A similar calculation shows that Zj and Zk are uncorrelated and hence (as components of a multivariate normal) independent. Therefore, we can generate Yj as independent standard normals and sample the Zj using Zj = ? j Yj . (2) After that, we can get an X using Zj qj . X= (3) j =1 We restate this in matrix terms. Let Q be the orthogonal matrix whose columns are the orthonormal eigenvectors of C , and let ? 2 be the diagonal ma2 trix with ? j in the (j, j ) diagonal position. The eigenvalue/eigenvector relations are CQ = Q? 2 , Qt Q = I = QQt . (4) The multivariate normal vector Z = Qt X then has covariance matrix E [ZZ t ] = E [Qt XX t Q] = Qt CQ = ? 2 . This says that the Zj , the components of Z , are 2 independent univariate normals with variances ? j . Therefore, we may sample Z by choosing its components by (14) and then reconstruct X by X = QZ , which s the same as (15). Alternatively, we can calculate, using (17) that t C = Q? 2 Qt = Q Qt = (Q? ) (Q? ) . Therefore A = Q? satis? es AAt = C and X = AY = Q? Y = QZ has covariance C if the components of Y are independent standard univariate normals or 2 the components of Z are independent univariate normals with variance ? j . 3 Brownian motion examples We illustrate these ideas for various kids of Brownian motion. Let X (t) be a Brownian motion path. Choose a ? nal time t and a time step ? t = T /n. The 4 observation times will be tj = j ? t and the observations (or observation values) will be Xj = X (tj ).These observations may be assembled into a vector X = (X1 , . . . , Xn )t . We seek to generate sample observation vectors (or observation paths). How we do this depends on the boundary conditions. The simplest case is standard Brownian motion. Specifying X (0) = 0 is a Dirichlet boundary condition at t = 0. Saying nothing about X (T ) is a free (or Neumann) condition at t = T . The joint probability density for the observation vector, f (x) = f (x1 , . . . , xn ), is found by multiplying the conditional densities. Given Xk = X (tk ), the next observation Xk+1 = X (tk + ? ) is Gaussian with mean Xk and variance ? t, so its conditional density is v 2 1 e? (xk+1 ? Xk ) /2? t . 2? ?t Multiply these together and use X0 = 0 and you ? nd (with the convention x0 = 0) f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 3. 1 1 2? ?t n/2 exp ?1 2 ? Deltat n? 1 (xk+ 1 ? xk )2 . (5) k=0 The random walk method The simplest and possibly best way to generate a sample observation path, X , comes from the derivation of (1). First generate X1 = X (? t) as a mean zero v univariate normal with mean zero and variance ? t, i. e. X1 = ? tY1 . Given X1 , X2 is a univariate normal with mean X1 and variance ? , so we may v take X2 = X1 + ? tY2 , and so on. This is the random walk method. If you just want to make standard Brownian motion paths, stop here. We push on for pedigogical purposes and to develop strategies that apply to other types of Brownian motion. We describe the random walk method in terms of the matrices above, starting by identifying the matrices C and H . Examining (1) leads to ? 2 ? 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? ? ? 1 2 ? 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? ? .. .. .. . . . 1 ? 0 ? 1 ? H= ?. .. ?t ? . . 2 ? 1 ?. ? .. ? . ? 1 2 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 0 ? 1 ? 0 .? .? .? ? ? ? ? 0? ? ? ?1 ? 1 This is a tridiagonal matrix with pattern ? 1, 2, ? except at the bottom right corner. O ne can calculate the covariances Cjk from the random walk representation v Xk = ? t (Y1 +  ·  ·  · + Yk ) . 5 Since the Yj are independent, we have Ckk = var(Xk ) = ? t  · k  · var(Yj ) = tk , and, supposing j < k , Cjk = E [Xj Xk ] = ? tE [((Y1 +  ·  ·  · + Yj ) + (Yj +1 +  ·  ·  · + Yk ))  · (Y1 +  ·  ·  · + Yj )] = 2 ?tE (Y1 +  ·  ·  · + Yj ) = tj . These combine into the familiar formula Cjk = cov(X (tj ), X (tk )) = min(tj , tk ) . This is the same as saying that the ? 1 ?1 ? ?. ?. C = ? t ? . ? ? ? 1 matrix C is 1  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 2 2  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 2 . . . 3  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · . . . 2 3  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? 1 2? ? ? 3? .? .? .? .. . (6) The random walk method for generating X may be expresses as ? ? ? Y ? X1 1 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 01 ? ? ? ?1 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 0 ? ? . ? ?.? ?.? v? ? . ? ?.? 1 0 . . ? . .? ? . ? = ? t ? 1 1 ? ? ? ? ?. . .. ? ? ? ?. . . .. ? ? ? ? 11 1  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 1 Yn Xn Thus, X = AY with ? ? 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 01 ?1 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 0 ? ? ? v? .? .? . ?1 1 1 0 .? A = ? t ? ?. . ? .. .. ?. . ? . 11 1  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 1 (7) The reader should do the matrix multiplication to check that indeed C = AAt for (6) and (7). Notice that H is a sparse matrix indicating short range interactions while C is full indicating long range correlations.This is true of in great number of physical applications, though it is rare to have an explicit formula for C . 6 We also can calculate the Choleski factorization of H . The reader can convince herself or himself that the Choleski factor, L, is bidiagonal, with nonzeros only on or immediately below the diagonal. However, the formulas are simpler if we reverse the order of the coordinates. Therefore we de? ne the coordinate reversed observation vector t X = (Xn , xn? 1 , . . . , Xn ) and whose covariance matrix is ? tn ? tn? 1 ? C=? . ?. . t1 tn? 1 tn? 1  ·  ·  · t1 t1 .. .  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? ? ? , ? t1 and energy matrix ? 1 ? 1  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 0 ? 0 .? .? .? ? ? ?. ? 0? ? ? ?1 ? 2 ? ? ? 1 2 ? 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? ? .. .. .. . . . 1 ? 0 ? 1 ? H= .. ?t ? . . ?. . 2 ? 1 ? ? .. ? . ? 1 2 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · 0 ? 1 We seek the Choleski factorization H = LLt ? l1 0 ? m2 l2 1? L= v ? m3 ?t ? 0 ? . .. . . . with bidiagonal ?  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? 0 ? ?. .. ? . ? .. . Multiplying out H = LLt leads to equations that successively determine the lk and mk : 2 l1 l 1 m2 2 2 l1 + l 2 l 2 m3 = 1 =? l1 = 1 , = ? 1 =? m2 = ? 1 , = 2 =? l2 = 1 , = 1 =? m3 = ? 1 , etc. , The result is H = LLt with L simply ? 1 0  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · ? ? 1 10 1? .. L= v ? . ?t ? ? 1 ? . .. .. . . . . 7 ? ? ? ?. ? ? The sampling algorithm using this Y = Lt X : ? ? ? 1 Yn ? Yn? 1 ? ? ? ? ?0 ? ? 1? ? ? ? ? . ?= v ? ?.? ?t ? ?.? ?. ? ? ?. . Y1 0 information is to ? nd X from Y by solving ?1 0 1 .. . ?1 .. .  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ ·  ·Ã‚ ·Ã‚ · .. . 0 0 Xn . ? ? Xn? 1 . . . 0 . . ?1 X1 1 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Solving from the bottom up (back substitution), we have Y1 = Y2 = v 1 v X1 =? X1 = ? tY1 , ?t v 1 v (X2 ? X1 ) =? X2 = X1 + ? tY2 , etc. ? t This whole process turns out to give the same random walk sampling method. Had we not gone to the time reversed (X , etc. variables, we could have calculated the bidiagonal Choleski factor L numerically. This works for any problem with a tridiagonal energy matrix H and has a name in the control theory/estimation literature that escapes me. In particular, it will allow to ? nd sample Brownian motion paths with other boundary conditions. 3. 2 The Brownian bridge construction The Brownian bridge construction is useful in the mathematical theory of Brownian motion. It also is the basis for the success of quasi Monte Carlo methods in ? nance. Suppose n is a power of 2: n = 2L . We will construct the observation path X through a sequence of L re? ements. First, notice that Xn is a univariate normal with mean zero and variance T , so we may take (with Yk,l being independent standard normals) v Xn = T Y1,1 . Given the value of Xn , the midoint observation, Xn/2 , is a univariate normal4 w ith mean 1 Xn and variance T /4, so we may take 2 Xn 2 v 1 T = Xn + Y2,1 . 2 2 At the ? rst level, we chose the endpoint value for X . We could draw a ? rst level path by connenting Xn to zero with a straight line. At the second level, or ? rst re? nement, we created a midpoint value. The second level path could be piecewise linear, connecting 0 to X n to Xn . 4 We assign this and related claims below as exercises for the student. 8 The second re? nement level creates values for the â€Å"quarter points†. Given n X n , X n is a normal with mean 1 X n and variance 1 T . Similarly, X 34 is a 2 42 2 4 2 1 1T normal with mean 2 (X n + Xn ) and variance 4 2 . Therefore, we may take 2 Xn = 4 1 1 Xn + 22 2 T Y3,1 2 and n X 34 = 1 1 (X n + Xn ) + 2 2 2 T Y3,2 . 2 1 The level three path would be piecewise linear with breakpoints at 1 , 2 , and 3 . 4 4 Note that in each case we add a mean zero normal of the appropriate variance to the linear interpolation value.In the general step, we go from the level k ? 1 path to the level k paths by creating values for the midpoints of the level k ? 1 intervals. The level k observations are X j . The values with even j are known from the previous 2k? 1 level, so we need values for odd j . That is, we want to interpolate between the j = 2m value and the j = 2m + 2 value and add a mean zero normal of the appropriate variance: X (2m+1)n = 2k? 1 1 2 mn X 2k? 1 + X (2m+2)n 2 2k? 1 + 1 2(k? 2)/2 T Ym,k . 2 The reader should check that the vector of standard normals Y = (Y1,1 , Y2,1 , Y3,1 , Y3,2 , . . . t indeed has n = 2L components. The value of this method for quasi Monte Carlo comes from the fact that the most important values that determine the large scale structure of X are the ? rst components of Y . As we will see, the components of the Y vectors of quasi Monte Carlo have uneven quality, with the ? rst components being the best. 3. 3 Principle components The principle component eigenvalues and eigenvectors for many types of Brownian motion are known in closed form. In many of these cases, the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm leads to a reasonably fast sampling method.These FFT based methods are slower than random walk or Brownian bridge sampling for standard random walk, but they sometimes are the most e? cient for fractional Brownian motion. They may be better than Brownian bridge sampling with quasi Monte Carlo (I’m not sure about this). The eigenvectors of H are known5 to have components (qj,k is the k th component of eigenvector qj . ) qj,k = const  · sin(? j tk ) . 5 See e. g. Numerical Analysis by Eugene Isaacson and Herbert Keller. 9 (8) The n eigenvectors and eigenvalues then are determined by the allowed values of ? j , which, in turn, are determined throught the boundary conditions.We 2 2 can ? nd ? j in terms of ? j using the eigenvalue equation Hqj = ? j qj evaluated at any of the interior components 1 < k < n: 1 2 [? sin(? j (tk ? ?t)) + 2 sin(? j tk ) ? sin(? j (tk + ? t)) ] = ? j sin(? j tk ) . ?t Doing the math shown that the eigenvalue equation is satis? ed and that 2 ?j = 2 1 ? cos(? j ? t) . ?t (9) The eigenvalue equation also is satis? ed at k = 1 because the form (8) automatically satis? es the boundary condition qj,0 = 0. This is why we used the sine and not the cosine. Only special values ? j give qj,k that satisfy the eigenvalue equation at the right boundary point k = n. 10

Comparison Of Hobbes’ And Locke’s Political Philosophies Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are both contemporary philosophers who were made famous for their political philosophies especially on areas of government and the community. Although Hobbes was born forty one years ahead of Locke, both have agreed on certain ideas but remained in contrast with others. In this paper we will try to compare the main philosophies held by Hobbes and Locke, focusing on their opinions on government, community, leadership and the concept of social contract or covenant. This paper will also attempt to align the said philosophies in contemporary events particularly in the American life after September 11 attack. At the end of this paper, this author aims to establish the fact that Locke’s political philosophies are more practical, consistent and acceptable over that of Hobbes. Hobbes and Locke are particularly interested in human beings and how they interact with the world. Both believing in the existence of God, they both insist that human beings need a leader- a feature of human community that is a vital element of their survival. 1â€Å"Without a leader, the country would fall away into nothing†. They however differ on the type of leader that a community should have in order to survive. For Hobbes, there’s only one man that should rule or govern the people, and that is a king (Hobbes, Thomas 1994, p. 83). Hobbes maintains that it is only this king who should be given the authority and the responsibility to write laws, make decision and consequently of controlling the people. In order for people to survive, people are therefore compelled to obey the commands of the ruler, both in religious and government matters. Locke however believes the other way around. For John Locke, it is rather the people who should run the government and not the king. Consequently, Locke points to the idea that the responsibility of uniting and taking care of the needs of the whole community lies in the hands of the people and not on the sole control of one person. Unlike Hobbes, Locke somehow points to a democratic form of government wherein the people are given the right to participate in all affairs of the government including the responsibility of deciding what is best for the general public. Locke also suggests that the people should rather have to decide on who they wanted to rule over them. Moreover, since the power lies on the people, they have the right to overthrow a wicked ruler in the same way as they have decided to have him seated in the position (Locke, John 1997, p. 22). Because Hobbes maintains authoritarian form of government, he insists that 1â€Å"society could not exist except by the power of the state†. This is directly contrary to Locke’s view that man is inherently a social being and thus has the need and the ability to interact with others. Hobbes idea then simply would suggest that man is necessarily a creature that cannot decide for him nor does he has the ability to discern what is good and what is evil because he needs a ruler in order to establish a society. Moreover the statement suggests that man has to submit to an authority and after which all individual rights are gone and so man is compelled to obey. It is also important to note that Hobbes, in this aspect believes that man does not have the right to rebel against the ruler since the latter is assumed to be someone who does all things good and lawful. For Hobbes, the right thing for man to do is to shut up and obey and once this is done, anyone does not have the right to kill the obedient one. Because the state is the supreme ruler in the society, the ruler then is assumed to be wise enough to the point that all his affairs, his views and decisions are deemed just. Hobbes also assumes that 1â€Å"all of society is a direct creation of the state and a reflection of the will of the ruler†. Locke however has a better and more practical idea that is obviously been the basis of most governments, especially those that employ the democratic form of government. On the concept of social contract, Locke believes that by giving up our rights to â€Å"exact retribution for crimes†, we are in return given the right to just, impartial protection of our properties and out lives (Harris, Ian 1994). Relative to this, man still retain his rights to life and liberty. The state, according to Locke has only one role, and that is 1â€Å"to ensure that justice is seen to be done†. The ruler therefore is necessarily not the sole decision maker in the society, rather he is just an instrument appointed by the general public to serve justice and maintain peace. The government therefore, as peacemakers should not be involved in any form of injustice or any act that may disturb peace in the society. Otherwise, Locke believes that the people are given the right to kill or overthrow the ruler. Although Hobbes is in favor of the unlimited power of the state, he justified his point well by stating that the purpose of such unlimited power is to end all conflict and contention. Because he regarded people as creatures who are incapable of knowing what is good and evil, Hobbes believes that people have the tendency to freely live a material life which would result into conflict. Thus the avoid this, the state is given the sole and unlimited power over them. 1Both Hobbes and Locke believe that there is an implied contract between the state and the people as soon as a ruler is being placed in power. The difference however is that Locke regard that contract as something that impliedly sets the ruler as a judge over the affairs of the people while Hobbes set that contract as something that sets the ruler as a master of the people. Hobbes points out â€Å"all contracts are binding, even if entered into from fear of violence or pain of death† (Hobbes, 1994 p. 86). Hobbes does maintains that man does not have the ability to recognize good from evil because he believes that good and evil are established and defined by the will of the state (Hobbes, 1994 p. 28). This means that good and evil exist only because something or things are defined as such by the ruler. Hobbes then points to the idea that there exist no definite standard or basis for man to know what is the right thing to do and what is wrong. As with the idea of property and its ownership, Hobbes believes that the state is the one defining the property of somebody. Because man cannot discern good from evil, human beings without the state or the ruler cannot live in peace. Hobbes further assumes that peace can only exist and reign in a society when its people subject themselves to one absolute and common master. From here Hobbes might be suggesting that it is impossible for the world to experience peace since the world does have different rulers. On the other hand, Locke believes that humans inherently has the capacity to discern what is good from evil and are therefore capable of knowing what is lawful and what is not. â€Å"Most importantly, they are capable of telling the difference between what is theirs and what belongs to someone else† (Locke, John 2002, p. 87). Locke however recognizes the fact that despite this inherent capacity and ability, humans act the other way around. In Locke’s view, the only norm should be peace and nothing else (Cox, R. H. 1960, p. 32). Unlike Hobbes, Locke believes that man has the capacity to live in peace by refraining from hurting other and from molesting or invading their properties. Since man has the inherent capacity to discern what is good from evil, it not therefore impossible for the world to achieve peace even with the existence of different rulers. All rulers of different countries in the world are human beings who are supposed to be mature and wise enough to know what is best for their people. Because most of these rulers are elected by the people, then it is likely that it is the general preference of the people that dominates the government affairs. I also agree with Locke that when the ruler placed by the people on the seat of power abused his political powers, then the people have all the right to overthrow him and replace with somebody deserving. In the contemporary world, Hobbes and Locke’s political theories can still be relevant especially that these have, in bulk, something to do with rights and liberties of the people and the role of the government on managing the lives of its people. After the September 11 attack, the American government has been very vigilant and has somehow gone beyond the normal process of ensuring the security of the Americans. Such security measures are so rigid and strict to the point that the freedom-loving Americans thought there are losing much of their liberties. The government in defense ensures the public that such implementation of security measures plainly for national security. As for me, such measures are preferred because my security, that of my family and all Americans is of higher importance than my liberties. Let us remember that the role of the state is to ensure that justice is being served at all times, as Locke maintains. Part of serving justice is for the state to implement measures that see to it that nobody in its jurisdiction is being oppressed or hurt. To set up surveillance cameras, place military men in public places, have everyone’s baggage inspected in airports, hotels or malls are part of security measures and I do not see anything that suggests these things to be invading anyone’s liberties. Besides what is liberty if we will all die under crumbles of another attack? The President has been elected by the people and it is assumed that his rule has the consent of the majority. The American people are wise enough to discern who the best person at the Presidential seat is. By casting our votes, we are entrusting our security and the general condition of the American people in the hands on the person we voted upon. To entrust our security to the elected President does not mean we are being robots who have nothing more to do but to shut up and obey as what Hobbes suggest. To have security measures implemented in public places does not at all violate our liberties and thus we do not need to regain them. I believe that the American government still acts within the limits of justice and that I still regard all measures to be actions wherein human security rather than vengeance is of higher priority. I believe that the American government has not yet failed with its task of protecting its people so we as citizens do not have yet the right to rebel or withdraw our support. Let us remember that failure to take its primary responsibility is the only requisite Locke has provided in order for the people to have reasons to rebel. We still have our full liberties with us and security measures are implemented in order to regain one thing we have lost in the 911 attack: justice. BIBLIOGRAPHY Cox, R. H. Locke on War and Peace. OUP: Oxford, 1960. Harris, Ian. The Mind of John Locke. CUP: Cambridge, 1994. An excellent contextual analysis of the political and religious mindset of Locke’s Britain. Hobbes, Thomas. The Leviathan. Ed. Edwin Curley. Indianapolis: Hacket. 1994. Locke, John. â€Å"Essay on the Law of Nature. † In Political Writings. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Ed. Mark Goldie. CUP: Cambridge, 2002. 1Locke versus Hobbes. 24 November 2007. < http://www. jim. com/hobbes. htm> Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Ed. Peter Laslett. CUP: Cambridge, 1997. Locke, John. â€Å"Two Tracts on Government. † In Political Writings. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Ed. Mark Goldie. CUP: Cambridge, 2002.

Cmi 3004 & 3006

In this assignment I will look at the ways in which data is gathered and selected, I will show my understanding of how to interpret data and information, and how I communicate the results of the information analysis. For the second part of the assignment I will show my understanding of the following: * The process of recruitment and selection * The process for recruitment, and * The process for selection The Process of Human Resource Management Plan â€Å"The human resource planning process, demands the HR manager to first understand the business requirement. Only if he comprehends the nature and scope of the business, will he be able to employ those who will deliver the required performance. When it comes to engaging the manpower, the manager should have a keen eye for spotting the talent. It ensures that the workforce is competent enough to meet the targets. Additionally, the existing ‘talent pool' in the workplace should be taken into consideration, so that people with complimentary skills can be employed. The functions of the HR manager are varied; he has to assess the currently employed workforce and their shortcomings. Identifying these shortcomings goes a long way in choosing an efficient workforce. While recruiting the new employees, the HR manager must calculate the expected workload. This way the HR department can design an accurate job profile and job expectations. Once you have the decided job descriptions, looking for candidates who fit the job will be easy. Don't be fooled by their qualifications, it is only the relevant experience that matters more. A good HR manager is one who has the zeal and passion to motivate his prospective employees to perform to their potential. Human resource planning process, thus, can be considered as one of the strategic steps for building the strong foundation of an efficient workforce in an organization! † www. buzzle. com Human resources use data by processing it into information, any data on its own is raw facts that cannot be used unless it is given a meaning or a context only then it can be processed into a usable form. Qualitative Data The term qualitative data is used to describe a type of information that can be counted or expressed numerically. This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analysed. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts. Qualitative Data Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature. Here are some of the major categories or types: * Interview transcript * Field notes (notes taken in the field being studied) * Video * Audio recordings * Images * Documents (reports, meeting minutes, e-mails) Human resources make the decision on having 8 housing support workers based on data and information that affects their decision. Data and information relating to these factors have a major influence on the decision of how many Housing Support Workers are needed in the sheltered housing schemes. * Economical factors * Number of tenants needing support * Funding provided * Budget for salary * Required hours for support (24hr) There are 200 elderly people living in 6 sheltered housing schemes, HSW’s are required to see all of them on daily basis. The organisation provides a personalised service to the sheltered housing tenants; each scheme is monitored and assessed in relation to the tenant’s needs, health conditions, mobility, and general wellbeing. There are seven schemes in total, but overall there are four, this is because in six schemes, two schemes are combined into one. The hours that a HSW is needed on each scheme vary depending on the needs of the tenants, although all schemes have an emergency call system in which enables them to contact a housing support worker 24/7. Two of the schemes have HSW’s on site 24 hours a day, these schemes have tenants who need more support, this is due to them being more frail and dependant, also the scheme is attached to the MAAZ Community centre, which has a cafe that provides hot meals 6 days a week, this location is very convenient for our tenants. Need for change Staff numbers have declined since 2008; the team consisted of ten Housing Support Workers and two Senior Housing Support Workers. All Schemes but one had a HSW onsite 24/7. Four Housing Support Workers retired, and the two Senior Housing Support Workers were made redundant. At the time the total of the sheltered accommodation flats was 150, now the total is 200 flats, the amount of Housing support workers is eight. An assessment was done, and it concluded that two schemes do not need a HSW onsite 24 hour. The hours were reduced from 24 hours to 8 hours a day in one scheme, and reduced from 8 hours to 4 hours a day in another scheme. â€Å"According to a report written by Professor Ian Philip in 2004, National Director for Older People’s Health, older people are living longer. † www. direct. gov. uk According to the above fact, the demand for various services for older people is increasing. Sheltered Housing is a great way for an older person to remain independent in their own home and have support available if they required it. Taking that fact into consideration; LJHA has provided two schemes that have 24/7 support available on site. The decision to have the HSW’s on site 24 hours a day at those two schemes was based on many factors including the age of the tenants. The average age of tenants at those two schemes is higher than all the other schemes, therefore the tenants are more likely to be frail, have mobility difficulties, and health problems, this is why more support is allocated at those schemes. Average age in (SH ; QHL 92), (SGW 91) Average age in (BH; LPC 79), (BC ; GP 74) Recruitment and Selection Job: Housing Support Worker Job Description:The Housing Support Worker’s job is to deliver appropriate levels of support to tenants living in designated housing complexes. The post holder will be able to work on their own initiative and also as part of a competent and efficient staff team. The job requires professionalism, confidentiality, flexibility, and good humour to ensure a smooth running and safe service for tenants/residents. Range of Duties: Ensure new tenants are welcomed and given relevant information about the scheme and service available * Maintain contact with tenants in accordance with agreed support plans * Provide appropriate and necessary support to enable the tenant to sustain their tenancy * Work individually and as part of the housing support team * Be alert to individual tenant’s circumstances and condition and take appropriate action to promo te the wellbeing of the individual * Liaise with and co-ordinate other professionals/ agencies for the wellbeing of the tenant * Contribute to the maintenance of up to date records and ensure that all relevant information is noted * Respond promptly to alarm calls and emergencies and take such appropriate action as may be required * Monitor and promote security and health and safety within the scheme and tenants’ homes * Develop and facilitate tenants groupings and activities * Ensure/ support tenants to make the best use of resources * Comply with ractice/ administrative processes for Supporting People * Ensure compliance with all relevant statutory and regulatory procedures * Undertake such training courses as are thought necessary by management and work towards achieving relevant recognised and professional qualification as determined by the Housing Services Manager The Process of recruitment and selection â€Å"Recruitment is the process of identifying that the organizat ion needs to employ someone up to the point at which application forms for the post have arrived at the organization. Selection then consists of the processes involved in choosing from applicants a suitable candidate to fill a post. † www. thetimes100. co. uk At LJHA the recruitment process involves working through a series of stages: * Defining the role * Attracting applications * Managing the application and selection process * Interviewing process A job role is either advertised internally or externally, this decision is based on the role and the expectations of the organisation. Internal advertising provides opportunities for development and career progression within the organisation. Advertising externally allows the organisation to attract new skills, LJHA usually advertises through the Job Centre or by Word of Mouth. Candidates who are interested in applying for the role are invited to an open day, the role is explained to them in depth and they are shown around the work environment, and are encouraged to ask questions about the role. This allows the candidates to consider whether the organisation is one where they would like to work for. An application form, job description, and skills specification (Appendix 1,2,3) is given to the candidates who are interested in the vacancy, after completing the application form the manages discuss which candidates are suitable. The short listed candidates are then invited to an interview. For the role of a Housing Support Worker the selected candidates are interviewed by two managers and one tenant’s representative, they are introduced and briefed on the job description. The interview includes a scenario test (Appendix 4) in which the candidate is asked to prioritize eight tasks in order of importance. Then the candidate is asked seven questions (Appendix 5). During the interview the candidate is scored based on their knowledge and skills, I have included a copy of the skills specification scoring sheet (Appendix 6). Candidates are selected after the managers deliberation, meeting the criteria set for the role is important, this criteria includes, experience of working with older people, ability to use own initiative, ability to work as part of a team, having administrative skills, and ability to use computers. (Appendix 6) When the successful candidate is chosen, an offer of employment is then made; this offer is conditional to two satisfactory references and a full CRB (Criminal Records Bureau) check. Ethical ; Legal considerations that may impact the recruitment and selection process Every employer has the legal responsibility to ensure that no unlawful discrimination occurs in the recruitment and selection process on the grounds of sex, race, disability, age, sexual orientation, and religion or belief. Equality of opportunity is an integral part of the recruitment and selection process, and to this end employers may offer training and encouragement to any under-represented groups. The Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Race Relations Act 1976, the Employment Equality Regulations (covering sexual orientation, religion or belief, and age)  and the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 set out the legal requirements for employers. Organisations should be aware that the rovisions of the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 not only make it unlawful to discriminate against disabled individuals without justifiable reason but also require employers to make reasonable adjustments to the workplace or working arrangements. Employers also have the responsibility of ensuring tha t the employee’s personal details are respected and properly protected, this is supported by the Data Protection Act 1998. The Data Protection Act 1998 requires employers to use data in accordance with the principles of data protection. These require that data shall be: * Fairly and lawfully processed * Processed for limited purposes * Adequate, relevant and not excessive * Accurate * Not kept longer than necessary * Processed in accordance with the data subjects rights Kept securely * Not transferred to countries outside the European Economic Area without adequate protection. Job postings â€Å"According to the BC Human Rights Code (Discrimination in employment advertisements), you must not publish job postings or advertisements that give preference to: * Race * Colour * Ancestry * Place of origin * Political belief * Religion * Marital status * Family status * Physical * Mental disability * Sex * Sexual orientation * Age† www. go2hr. ca Methods of communicating infor mation to staff, and their effectiveness In our organisation we use four methods of communicating, they are, Visual, Written, Verbal, and Non Verbal. Visual: it is common to incorporate visual communication in order to share ideas that relate to tasks in the workplace, this could include using, charts, pictures, presentations. Written: Written communication is also quite important when it comes to the workplace. This form of communication involves either writing or typing out information, facts, figures, and other types of necessary information in order to express ideas. Examples of this type of communication include reports, evaluations, emails, instant messages, physical and electronic memos, training materials, and other types of documents that are similar in nature. In the workplace, this is a flexible type of communication as it could be formal or informal – depending on the message(s) that are being expressed. Verbal: Verbal communication is a core component when it comes to the overall success of an organisation Non Verbal: means that a physical manner of communication is being used to share ideas and meanings among others. The physical activities may include the way that you move your body, the tone that is displayed when it comes to the tone of an individual's voice, and touching. In the workplace, it is not appropriate to touch another individual, but it is possible to ensure that the voice tone and the stance of the body is held appropriately so that the ideas, information, and thoughts are successfully shared with the intended audience. Verbal & Non Verbal Meetings have proven to be much more effective when trying to ascertain the facts, not only by making the member of staff feel at ease but also by watching their body language and prying all of the relevant information from them to resolve the problem efficiently† www. managers. org. uk For any communication method to be effe ctive, the following should apply: * The sender and receiver of information are properly matched * The message is communicated clearly – i. e. without misunderstanding or misinterpretation * Communication is made using an appropriate communication channel and/or method * The receiver of the communication is able to pass on any relevant and appropriate feedback (i. e. wo-way communication) There are many reasons why it is important for an organisation to achieve effective communication: * Motivates employees – helps them feel part of the organisation * Easier to control and coordinate work related activity – prevents different departments of an organisation going in opposite directions * Makes successful decision making easier – decisions are based on more complete and accurate information * Better communication with customers/clients will increase profits * Improve relationships with external agencies â€Å"The link between communication and motivation i s particularly important. Good communication is an important part of motivating employees and the main motivational theorists recognised this; Mayo emphasised importance of communication in meeting employees’ social needs, and Maslow and Herzberg stressed the importance of recognising employee’s achievements and self-esteem needs† www. cliffsnotes. com Bibliography www. buzzle. com www. direct. gov. uk www. thetimes100. co. uk www. go2hr. ca www. managers. org. uk www. cliffsnotes. com

The Colonial southeast Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

The Colonial southeast - Essay Example From this research it is clear that the Caddo’s inhibited in the southwest of the Arkansas and the surrounding areas of Texas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma from 1000 A.D to 1800 A.D. when they were visited and approached by the French and Spanish explorers; they were branched into three segments. The kadohadacho, right on the great bend of the red river, the Natchitoches in west Louisiana, and lastly the Hasinai in east Texas. The Caddo were native villagers and farmers, and their culture had a class system as part of their social structure. They lived in grass houses that were around fifteen feet tall and almost twenty to fifty feet in width or diameter. The houses of the tribe members were conical or doomed in shape that was framed with poles, and covered with a patch of grass thatch. On the territorial perspective, the Caddo’s inhibited isolated farms, small villages, and some larger villages. The economy of the Caddo’s was mainly inclined on the production of agri culture, maize, beans, watermelons, tobacco, pumpkins, and squash. Maize was the premier food material that was consumed by the communities of the Caddo’s. The Caddo’s were also very efficient in fishing, they practiced a traditional mode of fishing using trotlines, which symbolizes a fishing line loaded with baited hooks across streams. Caddo’s mainly inherited their maternal traits than the paternal ones. In the Caddo community, the Xinesi inherited a position of spiritual leadership, the Caddi, the inherited position of principal headman of a community. While the Xinesi were in charge of the communication with the supreme god and meditation, the caddi, were responsible for religious leadership, influencing decision making between villages, and to lead important rites, like the rights for harvesting and naming. Inspite of being in the medieval period, the Caddo’s maintained their community in a well organized government system. The Caddo’s been a lso involved in the trading of guns, fur and horses to Europeans and other Indian, by developing a trade and economic network (Texas history). Unlike the Caddo’s, the creeks were primarily called Muskogee’s. They are a powerful nation of Indians inhibiting the middle parts of Georgia, alongside the river mobile. The name creek Indians came from the fact that creeks and rivulets abounded in their country. The soil in the region is extremely fruitful, and the climate is also environment friendly. The creeks are cultivator of the soil; spirituous liquors are prohibited from entering the town of the creeks. By nature, creeks are faithful as friends, but also incorrigible as enemies, to strangers they provide the warmest welcome, and are thoroughly honest and fair in their dealings. The women of their tribe are significantly short in height, their hand and feet are no larger than those of nine or ten year old European girls. The body is well formed, the features are regular and beautiful, and the eyes are large, black, and languishing. Unlike the women of the tribe, the men in general are larger in size than the European. On the marital perspective, the mode of marrying is unique and traditional. The bridegroom takes a cane and fixes the same upright in the ground, and then the bride lays down another cane by the side of

Economic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 9

Economic - Essay Example According to him, the nature will be destroyed in the process of industrialization. States welfare, also, will result to spread of moral hazards, the capitalists will dominate and rule the private economy after dominating social power. In addition, he said that, completion will also be essential as the complacence and old-fashioned capitalists will be doomed in the progress of sociological evolution. I can agree that he was right for most of the problems have been as a result of evolution, which has even caused global warming (LÃ ¶we, 28). Keynesian economic schools of thought differ from other schools of thoughts. The basics of the Keynesian theory is that the aggregate demand influences the individual’s decision-making and that the States monetary system policies can also influence the economy. In addition the theory, accepts the suggestion that the total economic spending includes those of individuals, organizations, and government, where it states that government spending can help in economy development, unlike in the classical theory (LÃ ¶we, 35). Lastly Keynesian theory majorly focuses on short-term solutions to economic problems but Classical theory sides with long-term solutions. In addition, Anglo-Saxon capitalism focuses mainly on shareholders and no other stakeholders or employees. Anglo-Saxon differs from Asian and European capitalism for the focuses on long term relations with bank and a regulated state market by government but on the other hand Anglo-Saxon concentrate on short term relation/ profit in expense of long-term plan. I can say that US is a good example of Anglo-Saxon for it does not control its market. First I can classify United States, Germany, Sweden, Japan and South Korea into two broad categories of corporate capitalism and Anglo-Saxon. US is an example of Anglo-Saxon, and other listed countries are corporates. Equally in the US, there is a free

The State and Perspectives of Restaurant Business in London Essay

The State and Perspectives of Restaurant Business in London - Essay Example This shows that the customers are interested in enjoying nice meal even with lower budget (Warle, 2011). The restaurant business has contributed a lot for development of the economy. Every year it is creating a number of employment opportunities for the people of London. In London, traditional British food is more accepted, as it is one of the favourite foods of the citizens. Generally, the menu of the London Restaurant contains traditional British food items. The demand for food quality is increasing because of the changing culture as well as eating habits of the Londoners (Akbar, 2007). Economic Development and London Business Environment The hospitality sector is the fifth major industry which as per the data of the year 2010 provides employment to over 2.4 million populations in the UK. It also contributes more than ?34 billion in gross tax revenue. Creation of jobs are one of the most important aspects for development of the economy, thus it has created employment opportunities for people from Highlands of Scotland to the South West of England along with other main cities such as London or Edinburg (British Hospitality Association, 2010). The hospitality industry is the fifth leading industry in Britain which contributes 8% of total employment. The hospitality industry is leading in creating jobs in comparison to transport, financial services and communication sector. It requires support from the government in area such as taxation, infrastructure and planning of education and health policy to maximise the economic and social contribution. As observed by Oxford Economic study, the hospitality industry has opportunity to... This paper presents modern in-depth analysis of the restaurant industry in London and its role in promoting the economic growth of the UK. London restaurant industry is part of the hospitality industry. Thus, keeping in view the primary function of the hospitality industry which is to establish a new relationship as well as to promote a previously established relationship, this industry plays a significant role in making London one the most preferred destinations for people across the world. The London restaurant business is experiencing a significant amount of growth in recent years. According to the study conducted in March 2011, the hotel and restaurant sector in the UK is growing at the rate of 6.2 per cent. In spite of problems in the economy, companies such as â€Å"First Restaurant Group† in London have been still growing as compared to other companies. This shows that the customers are interested in enjoying nice meal even with lower budget. The restaurants in London are increasing their focus and interest towards the crucial aspect of sustainability. The several popular restaurants in London are purchasing food from the local suppliers. The interest of restaurant business is shifting to organic food. The marketing strategy is required to communicate with the customers. It is not only about entertainment but also involves innovation along with creativity to influence the buying habit of the customers. Advertising approach comes under marketing strategy which is used as a medium to convey message to the target customers

Environmental project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Environmental project - Essay Example Sustainability of the project is among the greatest challenges toward implementation of the entire canopy walkway facility in the short run and long run (Schowalter & Jerry 2012, p. 4). The positive and negative effects of the project to the environment are critical to execution. A canopy walkway would help pedestrians, researchers and tourists with uncomplicated access to the canopy of the Tropical Forest biome. Construction of walkway bridges supported by cables and pathways that do not require researchers’ physical efforts are some of the key tasks. Generally, researchers for a long time have relied on rope climbing techniques (Schowalter & Jerry 2012, p. 4). The economic benefits of a canopy walkway are the main motivating factors to its implementation. The walkway will also provide opportunity for further education alongside opening up avenues for local community participation. However, the project must adhere to the laid down procedures of environmental management as wel l as forest conservation bodies (Schowalter & Jerry 2012, p. 4). 2.0 Overview of Environmental Impacts The canopy walkway will generate array of challenges to the environment as well as the local inhabitants. The walkway will cause damages to trees and canopy. Such damages would be detrimental to long-term goal, which is to step up forest conservation and other natural resources within the locality and the Tropical region at large (Zeppel 2006, p. 220). In addition, the canopy walkway will interfere with the habitats of various animals. Birds together with animals that live on top of large trees would lose their habitat to construction processes. Therefore, birds of different species will perish or migrate during construction work. Tourist activities and construction process might lead to air and soil pollution. For instance, tourist might careless dispose food items, plastic materials and chemicals substances thereby causing pollution to the soil. Similarly, these food substances c ontribute to air pollution upon decomposition. Furthermore, the canopy walkway might contribute to an alteration of the relationships that previous existed between competing species (Zeppel 2006, p. 220). For example, destruction of trees to give way for construction work and certain feeding habits. Careless damping of injurious items, chemicals, and bridge constructions may cause significant decrease in biomass and contribute to mechanical damages to the vegetation. 3.0 Environmental Benefits of Project Canopy walkway project has significant benefits to the environment as well as local community. Revenues obtained from tourists could be used to facilitate conservation of the area. Since canopy walkways are constructed high above the ground, they spare several animals their habitat against probable destruction if roads or pathways were to be constructed within the forested zone in place of canopy walkways (Buckley 2009, p. 117). Moreover, people who visit the walkway carry new ideas that help influence their own lives and lives of people in their home states or countries. Thus, environmental conservation would become a universal requirement or necessity nationally and globally. Bringing local and foreign tourists to the area will positively influence environmental conservation processes and procedures alongside contributing to economic development (Buckley 2009, p. 117). The local community through its environment management organization will use funds obtained from tourism to enhance awareness creation and responsiveness to conserve Mother Nature and other inherent resources. Passing over the canopy is not only a memorable experience but also a challenge

Alfred Wegener ideas about Continental drift Research Paper

Alfred Wegener ideas about Continental drift - Research Paper Example Wegner’s ideas on plate motion were later on developed by different researchers. One of them is Kiyoo Wadati, who suggested that plate motion has resulted in often earthquakes in Japan, and those earthquakes are connected to the continental drift. He compared data from different earthquakes and identified a specific earthquake zone in the oceanic trench (Garrison, p. 70). Hugo Benioff pointed out that Kiyoo Wadati’s findings were related to the â€Å"subduction of the seafloor†("The Giants of Science"). Harry Hess was able to move beyond Wegener’s ideas and develop them in a different direction. He discovered how the seafloor spreading operates and what role magma plays in it by filling in the deep oceanic trenches ("Harry Hammond Hess: Spreading the Seafloor") Ronald Dietz arrived at the same conclusion, however the Hess owns the idea that continents move together with an attached oceanic basin on the same crust (Garrison, p.70). Tuzo Wilson analy zed Hawaiian Islands and their relation to tectonic plates. He concluded that these island were created as a result of plate’s movement northwest over the â€Å"hotspots† ("J. Tuzo Wilson: Discovering Transforms and Hotspots").

Research Paper (Based on Literature Reviews) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

(Based on Literature Reviews) - Research Paper Example Currently in legislation is the Fairness in Cocaine Sentencing Act of 2009, which would equalize penalties for crack and powder cocaine, thus correcting the injustice. The previous seven bills similar to the Fairness in Cocaine Sentencing Act of 2009 have not been approved. Congress and the President need to review and pass this bill and make it a reality. The main objective of this paper is to examine the facts or statements of truth that can be examined in the context of racial discrimination in the sentencing of drug offenders and to arrive at conclusions accordingly. It is known that disparities in sentencing are arbitrary for a number of reasons. Before the introduction of the federal compulsory minimum sentencing in 1986 for drugs related violations, the federal drug sentencing in the case of African Americans was higher by 11 percent as compared to whites. After four years this average was higher by 49 percent. In 2000 the proportion of African American people lodged in jails was much more than those in higher education. On the basis of such facts, leading analysts concluded that the country’s crime policy was a significant contributing factor in disrupting African American families. The impact of the compulsory minimum imprisonment for drug offenses contributed in leading to unreasonably high rate of incarceration and a lso separated family members from each other on account of minor crimes amongst their children. Such practices not only created large scale disfranchisement amongst those that were convicted of felony but also prohibited people that were incarcerated earlier, from getting appropriate social services in improving their families (Russel, 2005). These statements will be examined in the light of available sources and efforts will be made to determine the strength in such assertions. As reported recently by the Sentencing Commission, there is a strong need to revise the

Is There a Soul Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Is There a Soul - Assignment Example Firstly, other than the physical matter that differentiates one individual from the other or one living thing from the other, what exactly differentiates one individual from everyone else, or one living things from all the other living thins of the same species?   Secondly, what exactly feels the pain, sorrow, and sadness on the event of the loss of a loved one through death? The attempt to answer these two questions simply points to the existence of a distinct non-physical matter component of the living things that makes the living things distinct from the other members of their species, and which experiences the pain of loss through death (Bishop, 2000).  Further, if two individuals are born as identical twins and brought up in the same environment, observing the same behavior and mannerisms, there will still exist some aspects that make each of the two identical twins distinct from each other. Thus, the distinct non-physical and non-matter element of humans and other living th ings, which gives each individual living thing the â€Å"I-factor†, makes it unique from all the rest. This individual element of consciousness that makes an individual distinct from all the rest is essentially defined as the soul (Klemp, 2009). In this respect, the soul represents the irreducible element of consciousness, which makes it impossible for scientists to make any form of life in the laboratory by mixing any of the non-living matter. The simple fact that life stems from life and never from the non-living matter, is a clear demonstration of the fact that there is some aspect of the non-physical matter that holds the essence of life, which in itself is the soul.

2010 Texas State Political Party Platforms Assignment

2010 Texas State Political Party Platforms - Assignment Example This is because the unborn child has a right to life that cannot be infringed. Consequently, those organizations including hospitals and abortion clinics that support and fund abortion should be abolished and prosecuted. In addition, I support the Texas state in regards to the reversal of Roe v. Wade and this is the reason they affirmed the appointment of judges who respect family values as well as the sanctity of innocent human life (CTC Texas Politics 117). The act of homosexuality is immoral and it is the reason I agree with the Republican Party that it is a felony to issue marriage license to couples of the same gender. Moreover, I believe that homosexuality is the biggest contributor of the breakdown of the family unit. Additionally, the practice has contributed to the spread of dangerous communicable disease and contradicts to the truth ordained by God. In my upbringing, I have always known that marriage should be between a man and a woman. This is the reason I agree with the Republican Party that no civil official should perform such marriage ceremonies. In addition, Texas State neither accepts nor support homosexuality and opposes the legal entities. They refuse to recognize, as well as give special privileges including and not limited to persons engaging in same sex marriages, protection of children by homosexuals, insurance and retirement benefits for homosexuals (CTC Texas Politics 117). This is the reason the state opposes an y criminal or civil penalties against those opposing the act out of faith. In addition, the state opposes homosexuals and other individuals convicted of child abuse should have the right to adopt or be a custodian of a minor. In my opinion, homosexuality should not be presented as a good thing to do or a lifestyle in any family setting. Lastly, I know that all children have a right to education. I also believe

Army Regulation Essay Example for Free

Army Regulation Essay Chain of command a. The chain of command assists commanders at all levels to achieve their primary function of accomplishing the unit’s assigned mission while caring for personnel and property in their charge. A simple and direct chain of command facilitates the transmittal of orders from the highest to the lowest levels in a minimum of time and with the least chance of misinterpretation. The command channel extends upward in the same manner for matters requiring official communication from subordinate to senior. b. Commanders are responsible for everything their command does or fails to do. However, commanders subdivide responsibility and authority and assign portions of both to various subordinate commanders and staff members. In this way, a proper degree of responsibility becomes inherent in each command echelon. Commanders delegate sufficient authority to Soldiers in the chain of command to accomplish their assigned duties, and commanders may hold these Soldiers responsible for their actions. Commanders who assign responsibility and authority to their subordinates still retain the overall responsibility for the actions of their commands. c. Proper use of the chain of command is vital to the overall effectiveness of the Army. Commanders must acquaint all their Soldiers with its existence and proper function. Effective communication between senior and subordinate Soldiers within the chain of command is crucial to the proper functioning of all units. Therefore, Soldiers will use the chain of command when communicating issues and problems to their leaders and commanders. Open door policies Commanders will establish an open door policy within their commands. Soldiers are responsible to ensure that the commander is made aware of problems that affect discipline, morale, and mission effectiveness; and an open door policy allows members of the command to present facts, concerns, and problems of a personal or professional nature or other issues that the Soldier has been unable to resolve. The timing, conduct, and specific procedures of the open door policy are determined by the commander. He or she is responsible for ensuring that Soldiers are aware of the command’s open door policy. Performance counseling Commanders will ensure that all members of their command receive timely performance counseling. Effective performance counseling of officers, noncommissioned officers (NCO), enlisted Soldiers, and DA civilian employees helps to ensure that they are prepared to carry out their duties efficiently and accomplish the mission. AR 623–3 and AR 690–400 contain counseling requirements in conjunction with the evaluation reporting systems. Unit commanders will determine the timing and specific methods used to provide guidance and direction through counseling. FM 6–22 provides advice and makes suggestions concerning effective counseling. Providing regular and effective performance counseling to all Soldiers, not just those whose performance fails to meet unit standards, is a command function. All commanders will ensure that their subordinate commanders have implemented and are maintaining an effective performance counseling program. Staff or technical channels Staff or technical channels may be used for sending reports, information, or instructions not involving variations from command policy and directives. Command of installations, activities, and units a. Responsibility. The senior regularly assigned United States Army officer present for duty normally has responsibility for the command of units, platoon level and above, except as shown in paragraphs 2–8a, 2–15, and 2–16. b. Command of installations. Command of Army installations is subject to policies, procedures, and regulations promulgated by HQDA. (1) Command of Army installations is exercised by a senior commander (SC). The SC is designated by senior Army leadership. The SC’s command authority over the installation derives from the Chief of Staff, Army (CSA) and Secretary of the Army’s (SA) authority over installations. This is a direct delegation of command authority for the installation to the SC. The SC’s command authority includes all authorities inherent in command including the authority to ensure the maintenance of good order and discipline for the  installation. (2) Army installations are identified in one of two categories as follows: (a) Installations managed by Installation Management Command (IMCOM). Installations that are managed by IMCOM are discussed in paragraph b(4)(e), below. (b) Installations not managed by IMCOM. Installations that are not managed by IMCOM are discussed in paragraph 2–5b(4)(f), below. (3) Joint bases. Army installations designated for management under Department of Defense (DOD) Joint Basing 6 AR 600–20 †¢ 18 March 2008  Guidance shall be operated in full compliance with DOD requirements. In the event of a discrepancy between this regulation and the DOD policies or procedures for Joint basing, the DOD policies or procedures take precedence. (4) Roles and responsibilities. (a) Senior commander. The SC is normally the senior general officer at the installation. The SC’s mission is the care of Soldiers, Families, and Civilians, and to enable unit readiness. While the delegation of senior command authority is direct from HQDA, the SC will routinely resolve installation issues with IMCOM and, as needed, the associated ACOM, Army service component command (ASCC), or direct reporting unit (DRU). The SC uses the garrison as the primary organization to provide services and resources to customers in support of accomplishing this mission. All applicable commands support the SC in the execution of SC responsibilities; therefore, the SC is the supported commander by the IMCOM region director (RD), the garrison and tenants. The SC— 1. Normally is a dual-hatted position. When this occurs the commander exercises discrete authorities as the SC and as a mission commander. The SC responsibilities and authorities are installation focused; the responsibilities and authorities as the mission commander are mission focused. 2. Can, in rare cases, be an HQDA-appointed civilian versus a uniformed SC, who will assume the SC roles and responsibilities with the exception of UCMJ and command authority. In these instances, the individual will be referred to as the senior manager. Prior to the appointment of the senior manager, command and UCMJ authorities for the installation will be specified. 3. Is responsible for synchronizing and integrating Army priorities and initiatives at the installation. On IMCOM managed installations there is a requirement for a strong collaborative relationship between the SC and the IMCOM RD. The SC commands the installation but funding of almost all installation activities flows through the RD. 4. Assumes the duties and responsibilities of the installation commander where that title is mentioned in U.S. Code or DOD or Army policies and regulations. 5. Assumes the duties and responsibilities of the senior mission commander where that title is mentioned in Army regulations except for regulations involving operational duties and responsibilities. Mission commanders will retain operational duties and responsibilities. 6. Unless prohibited by law or regulation, the SC may delegate, as necessary, assigned duties and responsibilities to the garrison commander (GC). Such delegation shall be made in writing and specifically state the duties and responsibilities so delegated and the termination date of the delegation. 7. Establishes installation priorities among all resident and supported units. 8. Prioritizes base operations support consistent with HQDA priorities and approved common levels of support (CLS) bands. 9. Oversees the CLS services and capabilities provided to customers. Ensuring that those services are provided within the HQDA guidance, designated priorities, and approved CLS bands and coordinates with the IMCOM RD to change HQDA approved CLS from green, amber, or red. 10. Approves and submits the installation master plan consistent with HQDA long-range plans and goals through the ACOMS, ASCCs or DRUs, and IMCOM. For IMCOM installations the SC collaborates with the IMCOM RD before the SC submits the installation master plan. 11. Approves the military construction, Army (MCA) and military construction, Army Reserve (MCAR) project priority list at the installation level. For IMCOM installations the SC collaborates with the IMCOM RD before the SC  approves the MCA and MCAR project priority list for the installation. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers executes MCA/MCAR projects for the Army. 12. Reviews and approves the prioritization of Family and installation programs. For IMCOM installations the SC collaborates with the IMCOM RD before the SC approves Family and installation programs for the installation. 13. Installation force protection (FP) is as follows: (a) continental United States (CONUS) SC: as directed by U.S. Army North (USARNORTH) and in coordination with the installation management headquarters (IMCOM and Non- IMCOM), oversees FP on the installation; (b) outside continental United States (OCONUS) SC: in coordination with the ASCC and IMCOM is responsible for FP oversight on the installation. 14. Is normally designated as a General Court-Martial Convening Authority (GCMCA). The GCMCA orders will specify the appellate and review channels for SC GCMCA actions. 15. The appellate and review authority for administrative actions taken by the SC pertaining to individual Soldiers and DA Civilians will flow through ACOM, ASCC, or DRU channels unless otherwise specified in Army regulations. The terms next superior authority, next higher authority, next higher commander, and next higher headquarters as used in other Army regulations, mean ACOM, ASCC, or DRU commander or headquarters. 16. Serves as the senior Army representative to the surrounding community. 17. Senior rates the GC. (b) Garrison commander. The GC is a military officer, lieutenant colonel or colonel, selected by HQDA. The GC commands the garrison, is the SC’s senior executive for installation activities, is rated by the IMCOM RD, and is senior rated by the SC. The GC is responsible for day-to-day operation and management of installations and base support services. The GC ensures that installation services and capabilities are provided in accordance with HQDA AR 600–20 †¢ 18 March 2008 7  directed programs, SC guidance, CLS, and IMCOM guidance. The GC provides additional service support in accordance with HQDA directives and provides reimbursable services in accordance with memorandum of understanding or agreement (MOU/MOA). The GC is responsible to deliver Family and  installation programs, coordinates and integrates the delivery of support from other service providers, and obtains SC approval of the installation master plan. The GC may be appointed as a Summary Courts-Martial Convening Authority or the Special Courts-Martial convening authority for the installation and its support area; in rare cases the GC may be appointed as GCMCA. In some cases, the senior official on an installation may be the garrison manager. A garrison manager (the civilian equivalent of a GC has the same responsibility and authority as the military counterpart with the exception of UCMJ and command authority. Prior to the appointment of the garrison manager, command and UCMJ authorities for the garrison will be specified. The GC responsibilities are— 1. Represents the Army and the installation in the surrounding community as directed by the SC. 2. Approves and issues garrison policies in accordance with respective Army regulations, or installation level policies involving tenant units as directed by the SC. 3. Approves and issues policies for IMCOM civilian workforce. 4. Develops and implements the Force Protection Program. 5. Supports mobilization station requirements. (c) The ACOM, ASCC, or DRU on IMCOM managed installations. 1. Provide to IMCOM a prioritized list of MCA/MCAR projects and requirements that impact subordinate units to support the development of the military construction (MILCON) program and the program objective memorandum. 2. Provide IMCOM with subordinate mission priority requirements for MILCON and base operations. 3. Identify to IMCOM, through the CLS process and other requirements development processes, the required levels of garrison support needed to meet mission requirements. Also, identify to IMCOM any support requirements not included in CLS services. Collaborate with IMCOM in developing garrison support requirements that are applicable to all garrisons. 4. Evaluate the effectiveness of installation services and support and participate in the prioritization of these services and support. 5. Responsible for mobilization of subordinates as specified in AR 10–87. 6. Provide prioritization requirements for information technology and training enabler support to IMCOM. 7. Responsibilities for FP are: (a) OCONUS: The Geographic Combatant commander exercises Combatant Command (Command Authority) (COCOM) authority over all aspects of FP in the AOR and delegates authority for FP as deemed appropriate and necessary. This includes all aspects of FP on Army installations without exception; (b) CONUS: Commander, USNORTHCOM has tactical control (for FP) over all DOD personnel and assets in the AOR. USARNORTH is designated as USNORTHCOM’s ASCC; the authority to execute the FP mission in CONUS is delegated from Commander, USNORTHCOM; (1) USARNORTH has direct command and control authority over commands when executing FP responsibilities for installations/facilities (FP reporting commands/SCs when executing FP responsibilities for installations/facilities); (2) USARNORTH has a supported/supporting relationship with commands not executing responsibilities for installations/facilities (FP supporting commands). (d) Assistant Chief of Staff for Installation Management. The ACSIM is the proponent for all Army installations and in this capacity is responsible for installation policy development and implementation Armywide. The ACSIM does not exercise command authority over Army installations. 1. The ACSIM ensures that real property accountability and reporting is implemented at all installations (see AR 405–45). 2. The ACSIM manages HQDA level MILCON in accordance with HQDA priorities and guidance. 3. The ACSIM is the proponent for environmental policy Armywide. (e) Installation Management Command. The ACSIM is dual-hatted as the Commander of IMCOM. IMCOM is a DRU reporting to the ACSIM as described in AR 10–87. IMCOM manages Army installations assigned to it. IMCOM executes installation readiness missions, provides equitable services and facilities, optimizes resources, sustains the environment, and enhances the well-being of the military community. IMCOM is accountable for the efficient delivery of installation services and support. The IMCOM is responsive to ACOMs, ASCCs, and DRUs through a supporting to supported relationship. 1. IMCOM commands the garrisons assigned to it. 2. IMCOM and its subordinate organizations are supporting commands to the SC  on IMCOM installations. There is a requirement for a strong collaborative relationship between the SC and the IMCOM RD. The SC commands the installation but funding of almost all installation activities flows through the RD. 3. The relationship between IMCOM and the commands of tenant organizations is analogous to the supporting to supported† command relationship described in Joint Doctrine. 4. The IMCOM RD rates the GC. 5. IMCOM ensures compliance with HQDA directed programs and CLS bands. IMCOM staffs and coordinates with 8 AR 600–20 †¢ 18 March 2008  HQDA funding requests for garrison support requirements identified by ACOM, ASCC, or DRUs that are not included in CLS services. 6. There is a difference between command relationship in CONUS and OCONUS for IMCOM installations. These relationships are depicted in figure 2–1..

Relationship Between Identity and Employment

Relationship Between Identity and Employment How important is the relationship between a person’s occupation and his or her identity? Within human social contact, many of the interactions we have presume a link between paid occupation and identity. Such a presumption extends not only to the identity of the individual in question but also to the notion of a collective identity: an identity shared by the individual and his or her co-workers. The income generated from our work and the way in which we distribute it – the lifestyle it affords us – all help to shape our identity. However, there are other things which influence our identity; work being only one of them, and so establishing a causal link between occupation and identity can sometimes be difficult. When thinking about our identity within the economic framework of employment we must also consider the notion of representation: our feelings about our occupation and the money and lifestyle it affords us are shaped by the way others see us, and what they have.[1] Our identity is an encompassing concept that influences and is influenced by our relationships with other people. This logic dictates that our identities must be closely tied, in some way, to what we do, and how we interpret what we do in the context of our relationships. There is a close connection between doing and identity and the use of language in the creation of meaning and understanding of this[2]. Piaget[3] and Kagan[4] illustrate how children learn about the world through doing; how the realisation that we can act upon the environment contributes to our sense of self, and the realisation that we are separate from our environment. Children, therefore, come to realise that their actions have social meaning and that their approval as individuals is in direct correlation to what they do: we begin to learn about ourselves as individuals and as members of social groups. As we develop our identity is shaped by our competencies, especially in comparison with others, as well as our s ocial standing and the expectations placed upon us[5]. As adults, our identity becomes goal-oriented and this is largely influenced by society[6]. Occupation is a goal-oriented life activity. Goals are motivators because we view them in terms of the effect of goals met or unmet. Working late, volunteering, taking on extra responsibility allows us the opportunity to imagine praise, promotion, recognition because of our virtue. This imagining shapes our views of our future self and motivates us to further goal-directed action. Motivating images are often called possible selves[7] and they represent what we like might like to become or are afraid of becoming. Possible selves are useful for providing the catalyst to transfer thought to action and as we shape our own identity in a positive manner, our satisfaction increases. Our occupation is the vehicle through which we can develop and express our identities and in order for us to do so within our occupations we must demonstrate to others that we are competent to gain approval and avoid rejection. If we are competent it suggests that we are able to deal effectively with challenges that come our way; the more successful we are at dealing with challenges, the higher our self-confidence. Self-confidence highlights a clear link between our identity and a belief in the things that we are able to do. If our identities are crafted by our occupation and the way in which we perform within that sphere, then a threat to our ability to engage in an occupation becomes almost a threat to our identity. Disabilities often threaten the establishment of an identity based on competence.[8] Redundancy, for example, or unemployment can erode the shared experience of the labour process which can act as the basis for group identity[9] as well as the benchmark that enable us to sustain and articulate our individual identity.[10] For men, unemployment or redundancy can undermine their masculine identity as the traditional male-breadwinner and relegate them to the private rather than the public sphere, and for those used to employment, a lack of occupation can lead to identities becoming more privatised.[11] Turnbull argues that an occupational based identity may offer the individual the highest status and most positive self-image available to them.[12] In this way, those without an occupation, or w hose occupation affords them only the most basic living have identities defined by the notion of falling into a particular class, e.g. working class – here an identity is defined by subsistence. Poverty becomes a marker of status and position and can almost be a deprivation of identity. It is clear that an occupation is central to a sense of who we are and our worth which in turn influences how others see us and how we see other people, and since we spend most of our lives working this provides us with a sense of coherence which helps plays an important role in the shaping of both our individual and collective identity. It is important to note though, that occupation is only one factor amongst many which impacts upon our identity and its relative importance must be viewed alongside that of other social factors. In what ways do social factors shape our identities? It is true to suggest that our identity is made up of individual traits and interpersonal relationships as well as ideas and beliefs we derive from belonging to different groups. Every one of us has a number of different identities open to us and these identities tell us who we are and what each particular identity might involve. Social contexts will generally indicate which identity is most pertinent at any given time. Tajfel argues that there are times when our ‘group’ identity or social identity is more important to us than our personal identity and this decision is particularly dependent upon social factors.[13] Categorisation shapes our identities – when we categorise someone or something we do so in an attempt to understand them and their social environment. So labelling someone as a Muslim, or a Jew, or a football fan or black or white, unemployed or employed allows us to define the kinds of behaviour that are appropriate or even expected of that category. There are a number of different categories which bring with them their own factors which help to shape our identity and the behaviour that is expected of individuals who fall within a particular category. Perhaps some of the most obvious categories are those of race, gender, nationalism and class. When we talk about categorisation by gender, for example, it is often assumed that the role of an individual is defined by their genitalia and that there are social roles for males and social roles for females. This categorisation can be something against which individuals may rebel, but this can also be a group to which they belong tha t brings with it negative aspects, too. For example, a sub-category for women is often that of the victim; such groupings can have a substantial impact upon the identity of the individual. In everyday speech, we often use the word race to denote a group of individuals who have a particular way of talking about themselves and others – and again we often expect of these people particular types of behaviour, some of which can reinforce stereotypes and contribute to prejudice: social factors which can all affect the identity both of the individual themselves and the identity of the group itself.[14] We identify with groups we perceive that we belong to. This has two ramifications: part of what make me ‘me’ is my membership of a particular group, so sometimes there are in-groups and sometimes out-groups (us vs. them) but my identity is also shaped by the fact that I am truly a unique individual. My membership of a particular category or group is just as real to me as the fact that I know that I am unique. A further ramification of this concept is the notion that despite the fact that I am unique, my group self also makes me the same as others within my group. There will be some occasions when I will treat members of my group as being the same as me in some important and pertinent way. For example, I may believe that although I am different to the members of my group, in that I am ‘me’, I am also the same in that I believe that my nation is superior and more deserving of respect than yours (nationalism). Within individual groups Tajfel argues that group members compare themselves with each other, because this comparison allows them to define their group as positive (or negative) and therefore by default, see themselves in a positive (or negative) light. People are generally motivated to see their group as better than other similar groups, but often groups might try to belittle differences between groups in order to be able to view their own group favourably. For example, people from developing countries might regards their country as inferior technologically or economically but might believe that they live a morally much superior way of life. [15] Social factors, therefore, shape our identity in a variety of ways: they influence the way we view ourselves and others, the people we feel that we belong to and identify with, the behaviour we feel is expected of us, and of others and the worth we attribute to other individuals and groups, as well as to ourselves and the groups we feel we belong to. Bibliography Christiansen, C H. Defining Lives: Occupation as Identity: An Essay on Competence, Coherence and the Creation of Meaning. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1999 Cooley, C.H. Human nature and the social order. New York. Scribner. 1902 Kagan, J. The Second Year: the emergence of self-awareness. Cambridge, MA. HUP. 1981 MacKenzie, R. Stuart, M. Forde, C. Greenwood, E. Perrett, R. Gardiner, J. All that is Solid? Class Identity and the Maintenance of a Collective Orientation amongst Redundant Steel Workers. Sociology 2006. Piaget. J. The construction of reality in the child. 1954. Basic. New York. Ruble, D. Social Cognition and Social Behaviour: developmental perspectives. New York. CUP. 1983 Tajfel, H. Social identity and intergroup behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1982 Vygotsky, LS. The instrumental method in Psychology. P134-143. 1981. Woodward, K. ed. An introduction to the Social Sciences: Understanding Social Change: questioning identity: gender, class, nation. Routledge. London. 2002 1 Footnotes [1] Woodward, K. ed. An introduction to the Social Sciences: Understanding Social Change: questioning identity: gender, class, nation. Routledge. London. 2002 [2] Vygotsky, LS. The instrumental method in Psychology. P134-143. 1981. [3] Piaget. J. The construction of reality in the child. 1954. Basic. New York. [4] Kagan, J. The Second Year: the emergence of self-awareness. Cambridge, MA. HUP. 1981 [5] Ruble, D. Social Cognition and Social Behaviour: developmental perspectives. New York. CUP. 1983 [6] Cooley, C.H. Human nature and the social order. New York. Scribner. 1902 [7] Christiansen, C H. Defining Lives: Occupation as Identity: An Essay on Competence, Coherence and the Creation of Meaning. American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1999 [8] Ibid. [9] MacKenzie, R. Stuart, M. Forde, C. Greenwood, E. Perrett, R. Gardiner, J. All that is Solid? Class Identity and the Maintenance of a Collective Orientation amongst Redundant Steel Workers. Sociology 2006. [10] Ibid. [11] Ibid. [12] Ibid. [13] Tajfel, H. Social identity and intergroup behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1982 [14] Woodward, K. ed. An introduction to the Social Sciences: Understanding Social Change: questioning identity: gender, class, nation. Routledge. London. 2002. [15] Tajfel, H. Social identity and intergroup behavior. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 1982

Neuroimaging Findings in Late Infantile GM1

Neuroimaging Findings in Late Infantile GM1 Gangliosidosis  Summary: Late infantile GM1 gangliosidosis is an extremely rare metabolic disorder with clinical features of seizure and progressive motor and mental retardation without facial dysmorphism or visceral organomegaly. We report the CT and MR imaging findings in one infant, which included abnormalities of the cerebral cortex, white matter, and deep nuclei. GM1 gangliosidosis is a rare lysosomal storage dis- ease characterized by a deficiency in the activity of lysosomal galactosidase, which results in increased accumulation of GM1 ganglioside and asialo-GA1 in the brain and of oligosaccharide in the visceral organs (1, 2). Patients with infantile GM1 gangliosidosis usu- ally have dysmorphic facial features, motor and men- tal retardation, seizures, and hepatosplenomegaly (2). The late infantile form of this disorder is extremely rare and has no clinical features of facial dysmor- phism or visceral organomegaly (1). Case Report An 11-month-old girl, the product of an uncomplicated full-term pregnancy, presented with complex febrile convulsion during an episode of upper respiratory infection. Physical ex- amination at first admission showed a hypotonic infant with macrocephaly (>97 percentile), normal facial features, and psychomotor retardation. Hyperactive reflexes and augmented startle response to noise were present. The abdomen was soft without hepatosplenomegaly. Examination of the eyes revealed a normal clear lens, dilatation of the pupil without light reflex in the right eye, and mild dilatation of the pupil with sluggish light reflex in the left eye. Fundoscopy showed no cherry-red  spots at the maculae. Deficient galactosidase activity and normal hexosaminidase, and glucosidase activity on lysosomal enzyme assay in cultured skin fibroblasts were documented at the patient’s second admission 3 months later for clonic-tonic seizures during another episode of acute upper respiratory infection. Radiologic investigation included chest radiography (also covering the abdomen), CT, and MR imaging, all of which were done on initial admission and again at follow-up. A bone survey was not performed owing to unremarkable somatic manifesta- tions. A CT scan of the brain at age 11 months showed in- creased attenuation of the bilateral thalami (Fig 1A). MR examinations at 11 and 14 months of age showed hyperintensity of the thalami on T1-weighted images (Fig 1B) whereas, on T2-weighted images, the signal intensity of the thalami was decreased (Fig 1C). The white matter myelination was mark- edly delayed, with only the splenium of the corpus callosum being myelinated and no interval improvement in myelination noted at the second MR study (Fig 1D). Discussion GM1 gangliosidosis is a rare inborn error of metab- olism caused by a deficiency of galactosidase activity resulting in failure of catalyzing cleavage of termi- nal link galactose from substrates, such as GM1 ganglioside, asialo-GM1, lactosylceramide, galactose- containing oligosaccharides, and mucopolysacchar- ides. The abnormally accumulated substances in the lysosomes of the affected cells in the CNS are mainly GM1 ganglioside and its asialo derivative GA1 as well as other minor glycolipids and glycopeptides. Visceral storage with oligosaccharides is variable and may cause organgomegaly. Three types of GM1 gangliosidosis, classified by age of onset, have been reported (1, 3, 4). Infantile GM1 gangliosidosis (type 1) is the most common and se- vere form, with clinical features of hypotonia, failure to thrive in the neonatal period, and clonic-tonic seizure activity. Coarse facial features, frontal boss- ing, dysostosis multiplex, hepatosplenomegaly, and hazy cornea may be present or become apparent in the first year of life (2). The late infantile or juvenile form (type 2) begins with progressive mental and motor retardation between 1 and 5 years of age. Seizures are common, and spastic tetraplegia devel- ops, with cerebellar and extrapyramidal signs. Decer- ebrate rigidity follows, and death occurs between 3 and 10 years of age, usually precipitated by recurrent bronchopneumonia. Dysmorphic facial features, hep- atosplenomegaly, corneal changes, and bony abnor- malities are usually lacking, and, when present, are due to a mild degree or absence of oligosaccharide acc umulation. Cerebral GM1 ganglioside storage is also less severe in type 2 than in type 1 disease (1, 2). A, Cranial CT scan at age 11 months shows increased attenuation of the thala- mus and decreased attenuation of the basal ganglia, which were isointense with adjacent white matter. B, T1-weighted axial MR image (600/ 20/2 [TR/TE/excitations]) obtained at the same time shows increased signal inten- sity of the thalamus. The white matter my- elination was markedly delayed. Note that only the splenium of the corpus callosum is myelinated. C, Corresponding axial T2-weighted MR image (2800/90/1) reveals hypodensity of the thalamus and normal signal intensity of the basal ganglia. The cerebrum showed almost no myelination of the white matter except the splenium of the corpus callo- sum. D, Follow-up T2-weighted MR image at 14 months of age shows persistent delayed myelination of the white matter. Note that no cortical atrophy is seen at this stage. Children or adults with chronic, or type 3, GM1 gan- gliosidoses may have a slowly progressive disorder in which dystonia, dysarthria, ataxia, myoclonus gait dis- orders, and extrapyramidal signs occur (4). Bony changes are minimal. Cherry-red spots at the macu- lae, which are found in about half the patients with type 1 GM1 gangliosidoses, are not seen in patients with type 2 and type 3 disease. The disorder can be diagnosed in several ways, including lysosomal enzyme assay of low galactosidase activity in peripheral leukocytes or cultured skin fibroblasts, detection of abnormal urinary oligosac- charide excretion, and rectal biopsy (2). Prenatal di- agnosis by measurement of enzyme activity in amni- otic fluid and cultivated amniotic fluid cells has also been established (5). Neuropathologic reports on GM1 gangliosidoses have shown diffuse neuronal storage with ballooning of neuronal cytoplasm in the cerebral and cerebellar cortex, basal ganglia, brain stem, spinal cord, and dorsal root ganglion in type 1 and type 2 forms, and a tendency for selective storage in the basal ganglia with neuronal loss and gliosis in type 3 disease (6, 7). The cerebral white matter is gliotic and there is loss of myelin in type 1 but not in types 2 and 3 GM1 gangli- osidoses. Neuroimaging findings in patients with type 1 GM1 gangliosidoses have been reported only in a few cases. In one case, initial thalamic hyperdensity was found on CT scans and hypointense signal of the thalami was seen on T2-weighted MR images at a later stage (3). Persistent delay in white matter myelination on serial MR studies has been described in another case (8). In type 3 GM1 gangliosidoses, the symmetrical abnormal signal intensities were more selectively seen in the caudate nucleus and putamen on T2-weighted MR images (9). To our knowledge, neuroimaging findings in type 2 GM1 gangliosidoses have not been reported previously. The CT and MR findings in our case are identical to those reported in patients with Tay-Sachs disease (GM2 gangliosidoses). This may be understood be- cause the structure of gangliosides GM1 and GM2 differs only in the terminal N-acetylgalactosamine, and they are stored together with cholesterol and phospholipid; the neuronal staining reactions and ul- trastructure are identical (7). The thalamic hyperden- sity seen on CT scans in Tay-Sachs and Krabbe lyso- somal storage disorders has been presumed to be due to calcification. Calcium deposition in the thalamus can also explain the hyperintense T1 signal and hy- pointense T2 signal on MR images, although frank calcium deposition has not been reported pathologi- cally (10). Other investigators have suggested that secondary lipofuscinosis, resulting in deposits of pigmented degradation products, occurs in the thalami and cause this appearance in GM2 gangliosidoses (11, 12). In our case, the CT study showed not only tha- lamic hyperdensity but also hypointensity of the basal ganglia, which were almost isointense with adjacent white matter (Fig 1A). The MR study verified the CT findings of abnormal thalamic attenuation but not the hypointensity of the basal ganglia. MR is the only imaging technique that is capable of demonstrating the arrested myelination of the cerebral white matter in serial examinations (Fig 1C and D). Conclusion Although the neuroimaging findings of GM1 gan- gliosidoses are unique in our case, these findings could also be identified in GM2 gangliosidoses and, to some extent, in late-stage Canavan disease. Patients with late-stage Canavan disease may have dense thal- ami on T1-weighted images, as well as white matter necrosis, resulting in cavitation, and brain stem and cerebellar atrophy, which are not observed in GM1. Other neurometabolic diseases that often manifest with macrocephaly include mucopolysaccharidosis and Alexander disease. These disorders have distinct neuroimaging features and they should be distin- guished from GM1. A definite diagnosis of this rare disorder can only be made by obtaining lysosomal enzyme assay results of deficient galactosidase and normal hexosaminidase. References 1. Gascon GG, Ozand PT, Erwin RE. GM1 gangliosidosis type 2 in two siblings. J Child Neurol 1992;7:S41–S50 2. Suzuke Y, Sakuraba H, Oshima A. Beta-galactosidase deficiency (beta-galactosidosis): GM1 gangliosidosis and Morquio B disease. In: Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, et al, eds. The Metabolic and Molecular Bases of Inherited Disease. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1995:2785–2823 3. Kobayashi 0, Takashima S. Thalamic hyperdensity on CT in infan- tile GM1-gangliosidosis. Brain Dev 1994;16:472– 474 4. Tanaka R, Momoi T, Yoshida A, et al. Type 3 GM1 gangliosidosis: clinical and neuroradiological findings in an 11-year-old girl. J Neurol 1995;242:299 –303 5. Tasso MJ, Martinez-Gutierrez A, Carrascosa C, et al. GM1-gangli- osidosis presenting as nonimmune hydrops fetalis: a case report. J Perinatal Med 1996;24:445– 449 6. Bieber FR, Mortimer G, Kolodny EH, et al. Pathologic findings in fetal GM1 gangliosidosis. Arch Neurol 1986;43:736 –738 7. Lake B. Lysosomal and peroxisomal disorders. In: Graham DI, Lantos PL, eds. Greenfield’s Neuropathology. 6th ed. London: Ar- nold; 1997 8. Kaye EM, Alroy J, Raghavan SS, et al. Dysmyelinogenesis in an animal model of GM1 gangliosidosis. Pediatr Neurol 1992;8:255–261 9. Uyama E, Terasaki T, Watanabe S, et al. Type 3 GM1 gangliosido- sis: characteristic MRI findings correlated with dystonia. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;86:609 – 615 10. Brismar J, Brismar G, Coates R, et al. Increased density of the thalamus on CT scans in patients with GM2 gangliosidoses. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1990;11:125–130 11. Lowden JA, Callahan JW, Gravel RA, et al. Type 2 GM gangli- osidosis with neuronal ceroid lipofusinosis. Neurology  1981;31:719 –724 12. Stalker HP, Jan BK. Thalamic hyperdensity: a previously unre- ported sign of Sandhoff disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1989;10: S82